Ceramics 1
Ceramics 1
Unity-Principle of Design
Unity-Principle of Design
Unity-Principle of Design
Unity-Principle of Design
Unity-Principle of Design
Unity-Principle of Design
Line- Element of Art
Line- Element of Art
Classwork & assignments
Presentation slideshow
Presentation slideshow
Classwork & assignments
Classwork & assignments
Lines are everywhere. You can see lines in the grain of a piece of wood or in the cracks on a sidewalk.
In art, Line is an element of art that is the path of a moving point through space.
Lines are used to:
-
Create boundaries between shapes
-
Create boundaries between colors, textures or values
-
Lead the eye from one space to another
-
Create textures
-
Suggest emotional qualities
Lines are everywhere. You can see lines in the grain of a piece of wood or in the cracks on a sidewalk.
In art, Line is an element of art that is the path of a moving point through space.
Lines are used to:
-
Create boundaries between shapes
-
Create boundaries between colors, textures or values
-
Lead the eye from one space to another
-
Create textures
-
Suggest emotional qualities
Classwork & assignments
Grid drawing is a very old technique of transferring images (from sketches to a full size canvas or fresco, etc...)
Always make sure that the number of squares on the original picture and your working area are exactly the same (even if the size of the squares are bigger on the paper). This is because no matter how many times bigger (or smaller) you make the drawing, the proportions and dimensions can only stay the same if the number of boxes (squares) matches exactly.
Make sure you follow all steps below.
2.3.2 The Van Eycks and Rogier van der Weyden
6.1.2 India and the Islamic World
India and the Islamic World
You've officially exited the realm of Catholic and Protestant art. Now it's time to learn about other world religions and their art traditions.
Here you will focus on Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.
Along the way, you will study the influences that spread far and wide across the globe, long before transportation was easy.
Golden halos, draped toga-style robes: ancient Greece had as much effect in Asia as it did in Europe.
You're not in Europe anymore, but you might be surprised to learn about Europe's influence on Asian art — and vice versa.
volume_up
Complete the questions on your study guide as you work through this activity. Reviewing your notes before quizzes and tests will help you succeed. You'll be able to check your answers once you've completed the study activity.
Do you see any Greek influence in this circa 1st-century Buddhist sculpture?
A giant Buddha statue located near the Belum Caves in India
This circa 1820 painting by an unknown artist shows Vishnu (on the left) handing Shiva a chakra, the "wheel of energy" thought to exist within humans.
Buddhism and Hinduism
Two of the most prominent religions in Asia are Buddhism and Hinduism. Art traditions in Asia have been heavily influenced by each.
Buddhism
Buddhism started more than 2,000 years ago when a young man named Siddhartha was enlightened, becoming the first Buddha, or "awakened one."
The Buddha is not considered a god, but an enlightened man.
A good Buddhist will:
-
Lead a moral life
-
Be aware of his or her thoughts and actions
-
Develop wisdom and understanding
There are more than 300 million Buddhists worldwide. There are many schools and variations of Buddhism, some of them specific to only one country.
Hinduism
Hinduism, which started in India around 1500 BC, is one of the world's oldest organized religions. Today it is practiced by more than 950 million people worldwide.
There are many variations of Hinduism, which emphasizes the freedom of all its members to believe and practice as they see fit.
Hinduism has many gods, but the most important gods are Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer. Some people see them as one god with three faces.
Three of the main elements in Hinduism are:
-
The belief in reincarnation, or the rebirth of a soul into a new body
-
The belief in karma, which is the cumulative effect of a person's good and bad deeds. Karma determines how the person will be reborn in his or her next life.
-
The practice of meditation (often through yoga) and daily prayer
Greco-Buddhist Art
From the 5th to the 1st centuries BC, Buddhist art did not represent the Buddha directly, and instead relied on symbolism. It was considered inappropriate to create representations of the Buddha himself. Centuries later, the iconoclasts of the Middle Ages would feel the same way.
Thanks to Alexander the Great, the influences of ancient Greece spread east in the 2nd century BC, creating the Greco-Buddhist style. One effect was that, starting around the 1st century AD, the Buddha himself began appearing in art
Compare this 2nd century statue of the Buddha (on the right) to a Greek statue of a standing girl you studied in an earlier unit (on the left).
1) Look at these two statues. To see the art in greater detail, click the icon to the right. In what ways are they similar?
2) What differences do you notice?
3) The Greek statue does not have a halo or disk surrounding her head. What does this mean?
Standing Buddha, 1st – 2nd century
Buddha in the Mathura style during the Gupta Empire, 5th century AD
Gandhara Style
The Standing Buddha is a sculpture from Gandhara, Pakistan that dates to the 1st or 2nd century. It is an early representation of the Buddha in what is known as the Gandhara style.
Gandhara is credited with being one of the two most important early centers of Buddhist art.
The Gandhara style, which combined Greek and Indian influences, lasted from about the 1st to the 5th centuries. What specific Greek influences are evident?
-
Sculptors in the Gandhara style rendered figures realistically. This Buddha's features are in perfect proportion.
-
The clothing looks Greek, resembling a toga. The folds of the Buddha's robe fall naturally.
-
The disk or halo that surrounds the Buddha's head is borrowed from ancient Greece. If you remember, it was borrowed by medieval and Renaissance artists as well.
Other features that are typical of Buddha representations are the placement of the hands, usually in a folded position (if the Buddha is sitting) or in a semi-outstretched position.
Mathura Style
The Mathura style was the other important school of early Buddhist art. Mathura was (and still is) a city in the northern region of India.
Unlike the Gandhara style, Mathura was not heavily influenced by Greek art traditions. The following are charactersitics of the Mathura style:
-
A Mathura Buddha is generally unadorned in order to reflect his spirituality and purity.
-
A Mathura Buddha closely resembled ancient Indian gods. The Buddha was portrayed with short, curly hair and free-flowing, sometimes sheer, clothing.
-
Mathura clothing is not usually draped. The Buddha was sometimes bare-chested or wearing only minimal clothing, another similarity to other Indian gods.
The Mathura and Gandhara styles influenced each other and shared some traits in common. Each style focused on creating realistic but idealized representations of Buddha appearing serene and holy.
A Time of Peace: The Gupta Empire
From about 320 to 530, the Gupta Empire ruled most of India, including Mathura.
The Gupta period was a peaceful time that allowed cultural development in art and academics. The Mathura style flourished under the Gupta Empire, with Buddhist art reaching new levels of delicacy and detail.
The Gupta Empire was also a time of scientific and technological advancement, and is called the "Golden Age of India." You could call it the Indian Renaissance, about 1,000 years before the Italian one.
Buddhist Stupa
In Asian art, buildings and other structures are often just as much works of art as a painting on a canvas.
Ancient Buddhist architects and artists made temples not just as places for worship, but as visual representations of the Buddha's exemplary life.
One such building is the stupa.
Originally, stupas were designed to hold the Buddha's remains. Over time, his remains have been spread among many stupas. Now, the primary function of the stupa is as a place where people can go to honor visual representations of the Buddha.
The first, the Great Stupa, was built in the 3rd century. Today, there are eight styles of stupa, each corresponding to a period or event from the Buddha's life. Thousands of stupas have been built in India and elsewhere since the 3rd century.
Stupas are circular, because it is thought that by walking in a circle, people could become closer to the Buddha on their personal paths toward enlightenment.
The Great Stupa in Sanchi, India was built around the 3rd century.
Check Your Understanding
Although the Mathura style remained popular through the Gupta Empire and beyond, by the 10th century, Buddhist art was becoming less and less common in India.
Why? The art of Hinduism and Islam was taking India by storm.
Characteristics of Hindu Art
Just as there are many variations in the practice of Hinduism, there are many types of Hindu art. However, there are several recurring elements.
-
The human body is curvy and sensual. According to Hinduism, human sensuality is a symbol of the link between the human soul and the gods.
-
Humans and animals are usually shown in movement or potential movement.
-
Multiple body parts (heads, arms, or legs) are common when portraying Hindu gods. This shows their power and ability to do many things at once; it's also a simple way to show that they are more than human.
This circa 11th-century statue is of Shiva, lord of the dance. This is one of the most iconic Hindu images, showing multiple limbs and a sense of movement.
This is the Brihadeeswarar Temple from Tamil Nadu in India. It was built during the 11th century.
Hindu Temples
The Hindus build temples to house the gods on their visits to earth. In these temples, the gods, in their various forms, may appear to humans.
Honoring deities is an important Hindu practice. Sacrifice and other acts of goodwill are thought to improve one's karma and reduce suffering in future lives.
Art and architecture are intimately linked in Hindu temples. Elaborate sculptures based on the life or characteristics of the god to whom the temple is dedicated cover the temple inside and out.
Humans can only gain access to the gods by looking at depictions or representations of them. This explains why the gods are a central subject matter in Hindu art.
Gods Outside the Temple
In addition to constructing temples, Hindus also make portable statuettes of gods and goddesses for individual or private worship.
Images of gods are treated as sacred objects. If a family has a statuette of a god in their house, it often receives food and drink before the family serves themselves.
A Hint of Style
The visual characteristics of Hindu figures are both realistic and stylized. While the figure is in human form with accurate proportion, some aspects are stylized. These stylized parts serve as hints that indicate which god or goddess the statuette represents.
For instance, the goddess Devi is usually portrayed with one or more objects in her hands. The object in the left hand of this figure, combined with the clothing, tells the viewer that it is a representation of Devi.
This bronze statuette of the Hindu goddess Devi was made in the 17th century.
Islam
Islam started in the 7th century as a result of Muhammad's preaching in Saudi Arabia, mostly in the cities of Mecca and Medina.
It is said that Allah, as Muslims call God, recited Islam's holy text, the Quran, to Muhammad between 610 and 632.
Islam was then and continues to be the world's fastest-growing religion, spreading across the world in a matter of years. Today it is the second largest religion in the world, second only to Christianity.
Like Christianity, Islam is based on the worship of a single god. Most Muslims believe that Muhammad was a modern prophet or messenger of God, as Jesus was before him.
Islamic law governs all aspects of life, and in Islamic countries there is often very little separation between church and state.
Five Pillars: A Muslim's Duty
Followers of Islam are known as Muslims. They are expected to observe the duties known as the Five Pillars of Islam.
-
Shahadah, profession of faith
-
Salah, saying of prayers
-
Sawm, fasting or doing without food for certain periods of time
-
Zakat, giving of alms or money
-
Hajj, pilgrimage to Mecca
Check Your Understanding
Whether private or public, sculptures and architecture made for the worship were central to artistic production in ancient India and the surrounding areas.
Although Buddhist art largely was in decline in India by the 10th century, Hindu art was creating a fairly consistent style until the 12th century, when Islam's popularity began reaching new heights.
The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (also known as the Blue Mosque) built between 1609 and 1616 in Istanbul, Turkey. Mosques are Islamic houses of worship and can be found all over the world.
Qutb Minar and its monuments in Delhi, India, constructed from 1193 – 1386
Symbol of Islam: The Mosque
It was no accident that the production of Hindu and Buddhist art came to a near standstill in 12th century India.
The Sultanate of Delhi, which lasted from 1206 to 1526, was the first Islamic empire in India.
Before the first emperor of this period even took control, he ordered construction to begin on a great mosque. Begun in 1193 and completed in 1386, the Qutb Minar served as a symbol of Islam's arrival in India.
At 237.8 feet tall, the Minar is still the largest mosque in the world. As Islam grew more popular, the mosque was expanded to more than three times its original size.
Like a Hindu temple or a Buddhist stupa, a mosque is a highly decorative building. It is made up of a dome, prayer halls, minarets from which the faithful are called to prayer, and, in early mosques, open-air courtyards. While their layout and design have changed over the years, many of these features remain the same.
Islamic prayer is always directed toward the holy city of Mecca. The wall that faces toward Mecca is decorated with important signs and symbols.
Mosaics, Calligraphy, and Carpets
The mosaic was then and remains today the predominant form of decoration for mosque interiors. These mosaics usually contain phrases from the Quran, so this is a highly sacred art form.
Islamic tilework is mostly nonrepresentational — in fact, people and animals are forbidden subject matter. Occasionally, flowers and other images from nature might appear.
The mosaics in mosques are designed as aesthetically pleasing surfaces, often in the form of repeating geometric patterns, for the words of the Quran. These words are created using calligraphy.
In Islamic art, shapes and calligraphy are brought together into a unified work. This is different from the calligraphy of other regions, such as East Asia, in which the text is separated from the imagery and is generally found in manuscripts or scrolls. You'll learn more about this later.
Art on the Floor
In addition to mosaics, early Islamic artists also mastered the art of making carpets. Rugs made for religious spaces often reflected the dome's shape and other architectural features of the mosque.
This rug's design of geometric patterns and repeated shapes required careful planning and skilled execution.
Carpets are also made for use outside the mosque. In everyday rugs, the imagery is representational. In a carpet for a home or business, humans, animals, and elements of nature often appear. These features never appear in religious carpets.
The dome of the Yeni Valide Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey (1708 – 1710) is a beautiful example of mosaics and calligraphy.
Holbein Carpet with Large Medallions, 16th century, from Central Anatolia.
A circa 1515 painting by the artist Bihzad titled Battleground of Timur and Egyptian King
Private Artwork
Not all Islamic art is religious. There are also works made for private enjoyment, such as carpets, ceramics, metalwork, and small paintings, which are modestly sized and suitable for individual homes. They were also more convenient for trade before the days of motors, since they were easy to display and easy to transport.
Battleground of Timur and Egyptian King is a typical Islamic painting for private enjoyment.
-
It is full of action and movement.
-
The figures and animals are created using vivid colors, while the background landscape is rendered with a sense of lightness.
-
The clouds, trees, and grass are highly stylized, not realistic.
-
There is little sense of perspective. All the figures are the same size, and there is no sense of depth in the mountains, which are in both the background and the middle ground. Nothing seems to recede into space.
Between the lack of perspective and the stylized nature of the figures, it is clear the artist was not trying to create a realistic portrayal of events. Rather, it is a symbolic work meant to call to mind events from history.
These small paintings often accompanied literary works. This image could be a visual representation of the story being described in the text.
Does this remind you of anything? It's very similar to the illuminated manuscripts that were circulated in Europe during the Middle Ages.
Lamp with cross and bird, cast bronze, Egypt, 8th or 9th century
This example of Quran calligraphy by an unknown artist was created between 1400 and 1525.
Other Islamic Arts
Bronze statues are also popular decorative objects of Islamic art.
When working in bronze, artists would often have to leave holes in order to let air escape during the casting process. These holes were often not in practical places.
For example, the spout on this lamp is placed in such a way that any oil put in it would immediately spill out. Also, the handle is too small to realistically hold the vessel and its contents. This piece was purely decorative, probably meant to evoke the idea of a lamp, without ever serving as one in everyday life.
Calligraphy
As you learned before, Islam is based on the Quran, which is a written version of the words Allah spoke to Muhammad. It is the most sacred object in the Islamic tradition.
Muslim artists honor the Quran through calligraphy. It is the most highly respected and revered medium in all of Islamic art.
The careful brushwork, attention to detail, and artistic skill necessary to be a master of calligraphy is evident in these verses from the Quran.
A circa 1620 painting by Bichitr called Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Sheikh to Kings. It is a miniature painting done in opaque watercolor and gold on paper.
Mughal Empire
Babur, a Muslim prince, conquered southern India and made Delhi the center of the Mughal Empire in 1526, ending the Sultanate of Delhi. The Mughal Empire lasted until 1857.
Major artistic changes occurred during the Mughal Empire. Babur was deeply influenced by European art of the Middle Ages and even the Renaissance. What changed?
-
Paintings from the Mughal reign were smaller and more portable than previous paintings from India.
-
Subject matter started to include nudes as well as religious and mythological figures from European traditions.
-
A new focus on composition resulted in more organized, realistic paintings.
-
Figures became more modeled and realistic, often through the use of sfumato.
Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Sheikh to Kings by Bichitr is a depiction of Emperor Jahangir, who ruled the Mughal Empire from 1605 to 1627. Jahangir is sitting on top of an hourglass that represents his own life. As his time wanes, the angels below inscribe a phrase saying that the emperor will live a thousand years.
Influences on the Mughal Empire
Question
1) In this painting, what looks European to you?
2) Look at the bottommost figure in the left corner. He is holding a painting. Who do you think he is?
Symbolism and European Elements
In Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Sheikh to Kings, Bichitr creates an allegory or story filled with symbolism. A "Sufi" is a Muslim who is directly connected to Allah. "Sheikh" means "elder," and is a word used for a wise man or someone of importance.
So, the emperor is giving attention to the Muslim wise man instead of the other rulers, showing that he prioritizes spirituality over power.
A Clear Hierarchy
Remember the many European paintings that place Mary, holding the baby Jesus, in the center of the painting, with angels and other holy figures surrounding them. These paintings show a sense of hierarchy, or categorization according to status or importance.
In Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Sheikh to Kings, the figures are positioned in a similar hierarchy, another distinctly European element of the painting.
-
Jahangir is the highest and is surrounded by a golden orb or halo. This shows the lasting Greek influence on Indian art as well as the influence of European art (which had also borrowed the halo from the Greeks).
-
The Sufi sheikh is next; he is being given attention, or "preferred," by the emperor.
-
The kings, including a European ruler, are at the bottom. This placement symbolizes Jahangir's supreme power over all other regions.
-
The lowly painter Bichitr is at the bottom, showing his status in society.
How to Make a Mughal Painting
Even though they were heavily influenced by European art, Mughal artists had a specific method for their style of painting.
-
The first step was to draw a rough sketch of the artwork.
-
Then, the artist would lay the sketch on another piece of paper, and make small pinpricks along the lines of the sketch.
-
The top layer of paper would be removed, leaving the shape of the design on the bottom layer for the artists to copy with more precision.
-
Once outlined, the shapes could be colored. In order to achieve vivid hues, artists would apply color in many layers. The last layer would have flecks of gold.
-
Finally, the artist would burnish, or add a polishing finish to, the surface.
This ca. 1615 Mughal painting is attributed to the artist Manohar, and is called Emperor Jahangir weighing his son Kurram in gold.
The Taj Mahal in Agra, India, built from 1632 to 1647
The Taj Mahal
In India, architecture is an important art form, as important as paintings and sculptures. The most famous building to come out of the Mughal Empire was the Taj Mahal in Agra, a city in the north of India.
Few buildings are as breathtaking as the Taj Mahal. It is one of the most recognizable sites of Islamic architecture in the world.
Jahangir's son Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in honor of his favorite wife. It was constructed from 1632 to 1647, and they were eventually buried there together.
A Connection Between Heaven and Earth
The beauty and perfection of the Taj Mahal connect earth and the heavens. In Islamic belief, the most sacred burial ground is on a throne before God. The Taj Mahal is meant to be just such a throne.
-
There is a balance between the vertical and horizontal elements of the building, which give it a sense of perfect proportion.
-
The pointed arches direct the eye upward toward the heavens.
-
The all-white building seems to float over the gardens and pools that surround it.
Big Changes
The British presence in India had a tremendous social and political impact, part of which can be seen in the changing artistic trends of the time.
For example, the Victoria Terminus is a railway station in Mumbai, India. It was designed by Frederick W. Stevens, a British architect. This is a prime example of how England literally transplanted its own style and transformed the architectural landscape of India.
British Colonization
The British are coming! The British are coming!
If you were in India in the 17th century, you might have thought this. And you'd be right.
In 1599, Queen Elizabeth granted a royal charter to the East India Company. This marked the start of a period of trade and travel between England and India that would eventually lead to British occupation of India.
By the middle of the 17th century, England had established centers of trade all over India, starting an industrial revolution throughout the country.
The Victoria Terminus in Mumbai (also known as Bombay), India was designed by Frederick W. Stevens and built between 1878 and 1887.
In Review
Before moving on, review what you have learned in the study.
Go over the notes you wrote on the study sheet.
Ask your teacher any questions you might have.
If you have not filled out your study sheet, do it now before moving on to the next activity.
Study sheets are a very useful tool to help you study for quizzes and tests.
What Did You Learn?
-
Buddhism and Hinduism were early religions in the region we now know as India.
-
The Gandhara style featured realistic, proportional figures with natural folds in the clothing, a halo around the Buddha's head, and the hands in an outstretched or folded position.
-
The Mathura style had unadorned figures that emphasized the Buddha's spirituality and purity.
-
Stupas are buildings dedicated to the worship of Buddha.
-
Buildings dedicated to the worship of the many Hindu gods are called temples and are constructed in a beehive shape.
-
Representations of Hindu gods usually appear as statuettes. They often have multiple body parts, such as heads, legs, and arms.
-
Islamic art was and is based on religious beliefs and practices.
-
Many Islamic mosques are decorated with mosaics and carpets that are usually adorned with geometric shapes and patterns. All of the art used in the interior of a mosque is nonrepresentational.
-
Calligraphy was and still is used as an artistic representation of the words of the Quran.
-
Small paintings were common in the secular art that emerged during the Islamic Empire. They featured vibrant colors and stylized figures in dynamic motion.
-
During the Mughal Empire, European styles began to influence painting. This can be seen in Bichitir's Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Sheikh to Kings.
Take this opportunity to check your work.